Evidence collection14 November 2022

Veterinary care of rabbits

Evidence-based veterinary medicineSmall animals

Introduction

There are estimated to be between one and two million rabbits kept as pets in the UK, and they are the third most commonly presented species in small animal veterinary practice. Despite this the evidence-base relating to veterinary care of rabbits is less developed and well known than that for dogs and cats.

The purpose of this collection is to bring together a selection of the most relevant published evidence and resources relating to the veterinary care of rabbits with the aim of improving the care that we can provide to this species in practice. This is not intended to be a comprehensive overview of the veterinary care of the rabbit, but rather a collection of recently published papers and review articles relating to areas of rabbit care where the evidence-base is developing.

The first section provides an overview of current knowledge about the health and welfare of rabbits kept as pets, including husbandry, the most frequently seen problems, and expected standards of care.

This is followed by sections covering common reasons for consultation including infectious disease, with an emphasis on prevention, and dental disease, including conditions that may occur secondarily to dental disease such as abscesses and dacro-cystitis.

There is then a section on inpatient care including the management of gut stasis and anaesthesia and analgesia. References specifically relating to pain assessment in rabbits can be found in our evidence collection on Quality of Life assessment tools.

The collection ends with short sections covering other relevant literature including conditions of the reproductive tract, which links to the section on Rabbits in our evidence collection on the Benefits and risks of neutering pets – what is the evidence.

PDSA Animal Wellbeing (PAW) Report 2022 [PDSA] [online]. Available from: https://www.pdsa.org.uk/what-we-do/pdsa-animal-wellbeing-report/paw-report-2022 [accessed 9 November 2022]
Sánchez-Vizcaíno, F. et al. (2017) Demographics of dogs, cats, and rabbits attending veterinary practices in Great Britain as recorded in their electronic health records. BMC Veterinary Research, 13, no. 218 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-017-1138-9

Health and welfare of pet rabbits in the 21^st century

Osório-Santos, Z. and Suzuki, V.M. (2025) Evaluation of the nutritional adequacy of commercially available diets for pet and farm rabbits compared to pet rabbit nutritional recommendation. Journal of Small Animal Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13902
Gallego-Agundez, M. and Díaz-Berciano, C. (2025) Veterinary spending patterns for pet rabbits in Spain. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 53, pp. 43-44. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2025.07.006
Chitty, J. (2025) Key facts about endoparasites of pet rabbits: a guide for clinicians. Companion Animal, 30 (2). https://doi.org/10.12968/coan.2024.0024
O’Neill, D.G. et al. (2024) Conformation-associated health in pet rabbits in the UK: A VetCompass cohort study. Veterinary Record, e4396. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.4396
Oliver-Guimera, A. et al. (2024) Diseases of domestic rabbits by purpose; a retrospective study of 2,583 cases received at 4 diagnostic laboratories in California, USA, 2013–2022. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387241262021
Espinosa García-San Román, J. et al. (2024) Clinicopathologic findings and causes of mortality in 100 pet rabbits from the Canary Islands, Spain, 2011–2022. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387241264801
Suba-Bokodi, É., Nagy, I. and Molnár, M. (2024) The impact of transportation on the cortisol level of dwarf rabbits bred to animal-assisted interventions. Animals, 14 (5), no. 664. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14050664
Tynes, V. V. (2023) The interaction between behavioral and physical health in rabbits. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 54 (1), pp. 169-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2023.08.001
Summa, N.M. and Brandão, J. (2017) Evidence-based advances in rabbit medicine. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 20 (3), pp. 749-771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2017.04.00
Adji, A.V., Pedersen, A.Ø. and Agyekum, A.K. (2022) Obesity in pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus): A narrative review. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 41, pp. 30-37. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2022.02.003
Fisher, P.G. (2010) Standards of care in the 21st century: the rabbit. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 19 (1), pp. 22-35. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2010.01.004
Ozawa, S. and Gleeson, M. (2023) Rabbit pediatrics. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2023.11.003
Rioja‐Lang, F. et al. (2019) Rabbit welfare: Determining priority welfare issues for pet rabbits using a modified Delphi method. Veterinary Record Open, 6 (1), p.e000363. https://doi.org/10.1136/vetreco-2019-000363
A journal watch summary of this article is available.
Rooney, N.J. et al. (2014) The current state of welfare, housing and husbandry of the English pet rabbit population. BMC Research Notes, 7, no. 942. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-7-942
O’Neill, D.G. et al. (2020) Morbidity and mortality of domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) under primary veterinary care in England. Veterinary Record, 186 (14), pp. 451. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.105592
Robinson, N.J. et al. (2017) Veterinarian nominated common conditions of rabbits and guinea pigs compared with published literature. Veterinary sciences, 4 (4), no. 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci4040058
A journal watch summary of this article is available.
Mee, G. et al. (2022) Owner demographic factors are associated with suitable pet rabbit housing provision in the United Kingdom. Veterinary Record, p.e1736. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.1736
Sayers, I. (2010) Approach to preventive health care and welfare in rabbits. In Practice, 32 (5), pp. 190-198. https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.c2228
Malley, D. (2007) Safe handling and restraint of pet rabbits. In Practice, 29 (7), pp. 378-386. https://doi.org/10.1136/inpract.29.7.378

Welfare codes

APGAW (2021) Good Practice Code for the Welfare of Rabbits: Created to support Section 15 of the Animal Welfare Act 2006. [online] London: APGAW. Available from: https://apgaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Rabbit-CoP-2021-1.pdf [accessed 10 November 2022]
Welsh Assembly Government [2021] Code of Practice for the Welfare of Rabbits: Following the code. [online] Cardiff: Crown Copyright. Available from: https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2021-02/rabbit-welfare-code-of-practice.pdf [accessed 10 November 2022]
Pet rabbit welfare guidance [Scottish Government][online]. Available from: https://www.gov.scot/publications/pet-rabbit-welfare-guidance/ [accessed 10 November 2022]

Infectious disease

Ghorbani, A. et al. (2025) Cryptosporidium in rabbits: a global systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, species/genotypes distribution and zoonotic significance. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 11 (2), no. e70309. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.70309
Westcott, S. (2022) An overview of rabbit diseases and their current vaccination protocols. The Veterinary Nurse, 13 (6), pp. 256-261. https://doi.org/10.12968/vetn.2022.13.6.256
Reemers, S. et al. (2020) Novel trivalent vectored vaccine for control of myxomatosis and disease caused by classical and a new genotype of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus. Vaccines, 8 (3), no. 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8030441
Fernandez, M. et al. (2023) Current situation of bacterial infections and antimicrobial resistance profiles in pet rabbits in Spain. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (5), no. 352. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10050352

Myxomatosis

Myxomatosis cases in rabbits [Tableau Public] [online]. Available from: https://public.tableau.com/app/profile/savsnet.at.liverpool/viz/myxomatosis/Dashboard1 [accessed 20 January 2023]
For interpretation of the data, please visit: SAVSNET in real-time [University of Liverspool] [online]. Available from: https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/savsnet/real-time-data/ [accessed 20 January 2023]
Farrell, S. et al. (2020) Seasonality and risk factors for myxomatosis in pet rabbits in Great Britain. Preventive veterinary medicine, 176, p.104924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.104924

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease

Wu, M. et al. (2024) Specific detection of RHDV GI.1 and GI.2 by RT-LAMP-CRISPR/Cas12a platform. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. https://doi.org/10.1155/tbed/3881457
Ahmed, D.A.A. et al. (2024) Evaluation of comparative gel and montanide (ISA 70) in potency and protection of locally prepared rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus 2 (RHDV2) vaccines in rabbits. BMC Veterinary Research. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04239-w
Asin, J. et al. (2024) Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus 2, 2010–2023: a review of global detections and affected species. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387241260281
Sun, Z. et al. (2024) Epidemiological characterization and risk assessment of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus 2 (RHDV2/b/GI.2) in the world. Veterinary Research, 55, no. 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13567-024-01286-x
Harcourt‐Brown, N. et al. (2020) RHDV2 epidemic in UK pet rabbits. Part 1: Clinical features, gross post mortem and histopathological findings. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 61 (7), pp. 419-427. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13141
Harcourt‐Brown, F.M., Harcourt‐Brown, N. and Joudou, L.M. (2020) RHDV2 epidemic in UK pet rabbits. Part 2: PCR results and correlation with vaccination status. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 61 (8), pp. 487-493. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13180
Rocchi, M.S. and Dagleish, M.P. (2018) Diagnosis and prevention of rabbit viral haemorrhagic disease 2. In Practice, 40 (1), pp. 11-16. https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.k54
Calvete, C. et al. (2021) Infectivity of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus excreted in rabbit faecal pellets. Veterinary Microbiology, 257, p.109079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109079

Myiasis

Turner, R. et al. (2018) Risk factors for cutaneous myiasis (blowfly strike) in pet rabbits in Great Britain based on text-mining veterinary electronic health records. Preventive veterinary medicine, 153, pp. 77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.03.011
Cousquer, G. (2006) Veterinary care of rabbits with myiasis. In practice, 28 (6), pp. 342-349. https://doi.org/10.1136/inpract.28.6.342
Druce, K. (2015) Myiasis in domestic rabbits. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 30 (7), pp. 199-202. https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2015.1047431

Encephalitozoon cuniculi

Abdoli, A. et al. (2024) The global prevalence of microsporidia infection in rabbits as a neglected public health concern: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 234, 106380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106380
Liatis, T. et al. (2024) Otitis media/interna and encephalitozoonosis are the most common causes of head tilt in pet rabbits in the UK: 73 cases (2009‒2020). Veterinary Record, 2024;e4267. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.4267
Künzel, F. and Fisher, P.G. (2018) Clinical signs, diagnosis, and treatment of Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 21 (1), pp. 69-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2017.08.002
La’Toya, V.L., Bradley, C.W. and Wyre, N.R. (2014) Encephalitozoon cuniculi in pet rabbits: diagnosis and optimal management. Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports, 5, p. 169. https://doi.org/10.2147%2FVMRR.S49842
Harcourt-Brown, F.M. (2004) Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, 13 (2), pp. 86-93. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.saep.2004.01.004
Keeble, E. (2011) Encephalitozoonosis in rabbits–what we do and don’t know. In Practice, 33 (9), pp. 426-435. https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.d6077
Leipig, M. et al. (2013) Value of histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and real-time polymerase chain reaction in the confirmatory diagnosis of Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 25 (1), pp. 16-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1040638712466394
Rich, G. (2010) Clinical update on testing modalities for Encephalitozoon cuniculi in clinically sick rabbits. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 19 (3), pp. 226-230. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2010.07.007
Cray, C. et al. (2015) Utility of IgM titers with IgG and C-reactive protein quantitation in the diagnosis of suspected Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in rabbits. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 24 (3), pp. 356-360. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2015.06.017

Dental care

Jackson, M.A. et al. (2025) Dental disease in rabbits under UK primary veterinary care: Clinical management and associated welfare impacts. Veterinary Record, no. e5326. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.5326
Mäkitaipale, J. et al. (2024) Rabbit teeth serve as a calcium source for rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The Veterinary Journal, 309, 106268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2024.106268
Minich, D.J. et al. (2024) High incidence of complications following intraoral extractions and treatment of periapical infections in the management of domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) dental disease (51 cases). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 263 (2). https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.07.0460
Le, K. and Sheen, J.C. (2024) Clinical presentation, management and outcome of maxillofacial fractures in pet rabbits: 27 cases (2008-2022). Journal of Small Animal Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13793
Mikoni, N., Sanchez-Migallon Guzman, D. and Beaufrére, H. (2024) Computed tomographic findings of nasal and paranasal disease in domestic rabbits highlight maxillary sinusitis and close association with dental disease: 100 studies (2004–2024). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.05.0330
Levy, I. and Mans, C. (2024) Diagnosis and outcome of odontogenic abscesses in client-owned rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus): 72 cases (2011–2022). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 262 (5), pp. 658-664. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.12.0718
Petrini, D. et al. (2023) Computed tomographic findings secondary to dental pathologies: Comparison between rabbits and guinea pigs. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (12), no. 705. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10120705
Girard, N. (2023) Surgical treatment of facial abscesses and jaw osteomyelitis of dental origin using extraoral tooth extraction in the domestic rabbit: A case series. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry. https://doi.org/10.1177/08987564231168985
Flenghi, L. et al. (2023) Normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity in healthy pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Veterinary Medicine and Science, https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.1144
Palma-Medel, T., Marcone, D. and Alegría-Morán, R. (2023) Dental disease in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and its risk factors – A private practice study in the metropolitan region of Chile. Animals, 13, no. 676. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040676
Harcourt‐Brown, F. (2009) Dental disease in pet rabbits: 1. Normal dentition, pathogenesis and aetiology. In Practice, 31 (8), pp. 370-379. https://doi.org/10.1136/inpract.31.8.370
Harcourt‐Brown, F. (2009) Dental disease in pet rabbits: 2. Diagnosis and treatment. In Practice, 31 (9), pp. 432-445. https://doi.org/10.1136/inpract.31.9.432
Harcourt‐Brown, F. (2009) Dental disease in pet rabbits: 3. Jaw abscesses. In Practice, 31 (10), pp. 496-505. https://doi.org/10.1136/inpract.31.10.496
Lennox, A.M. (2008) Diagnosis and treatment of dental disease in pet rabbits. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 17 (2), pp. 107-113. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2008.03.008
Harcourt-Brown, F.M. (2007) The progressive syndrome of acquired dental disease in rabbits. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 16 (3), pp. 146-157. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2007.06.003
Meredith, A.L., Prebble, J.L. and Shaw, D.J. (2015) Impact of diet on incisor growth and attrition and the development of dental disease in pet rabbits. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 56 (6), pp. 377-382. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12346
Jekl, V. and Redrobe, S. (2013) Rabbit dental disease and calcium metabolism–the science behind divided opinions. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 54 (9), pp. 481-490. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12124
Capello, V. (2016) Diagnostic imaging of dental disease in pet rabbits and rodents. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 19 (3), pp. 757-782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2016.05.001
Capello, V. (2016) Intraoral treatment of dental disease in pet rabbits. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 19 (3), pp. 783-798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2016.05.002
Böhmer, C. and Böhmer, E. (2020) Skull shape diversity in pet rabbits and the applicability of anatomical reference lines for objective interpretation of dental disease. Veterinary sciences, 7 (4), no. 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci7040182
Donnelly, T.M. and Vella, D. (2016) Anatomy, physiology and non-dental disorders of the mouth of pet rabbits. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 19 (3), pp. 737-756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2016.04.004

Facial abscesses

Capello, V. (2025) Surgical treatment of facial abscesses and facial surgery in pet rabbits. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 28 (3), pp. 645-672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2025.05.006
Crăciun, S. and Nadăş, G.C. (2025) Odontogenic abscesses in pet rabbits: a comprehensive review of pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment advances. Animals, 15 (13), no. 1994. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15131994
Rätsep, E., Ludwig. L. and Dobromylskyj, M. (2024) Orofacial masses in domestic rabbits: a retrospective review of 120 cases from 2 institutions, 2000–2023. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387241234326
Levy, I. and Mans, C. et al. (2023) Long-term systemic antibiotics and surgical treatment can be an effective treatment option for retrobulbar abscesses in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus): 21 cases (2011–2022). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 261 (10), 1488- 1494.
https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.05.0226
Jekl, V., Jeklova, E. and Hauptman, K. (2023) Radical debridement guided by advanced imaging and frequent monitoring is an effective approach for the treatment of odontogenic abscesses and jaw osteomyelitis in rabbits: a review of 200 cases (2018–2023). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.06.0332 .
Capello, V. (2016) Surgical treatment of facial abscesses and facial surgery in pet Rabbits. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 19 (3), pp. 799-823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2016.04.010
Hedley, J. (2018) Dealing with abscesses in rabbits. In Practice, 40 (8), p. 359. https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.k4077

Behaviour

Crowell-Davis, S. (2021) Rabbit Behavior. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 24 (1), pp. 53-62 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2020.09.002
Stapleton, N. (2021) Guide to behavioural issues in rabbits. In Practice, 43 (1), pp. 18-25. https://doi.org/10.1002/inpr.4
González-Martínez, Á. et al. (2022) Epidemiology of behavioural problems in pet rabbits: An owners’ survey. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 49, pp. 65-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2021.11.012
d’Ovidio, D. et al. (2016) Sex differences in human-directed social behavior in pet rabbits. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 15, pp. 37-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2016.08.072

Critical care

Cojean, O., Duhamelle, A. and Larrat, S. (2024) Success rate and complication prevalence of peripheral catheterization of the cephalic, lateral saphenous and marginal ear veins in pet rabbits. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 50, pp. 42-48. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2024.05.004
Morrison, C. (2024) Never fear when a rabbit stasis patient is near. The Veterinary Nurse, 15 (1), pp. 18-22. https://doi.org/10.12968/vetn.2024.15.1.18
Huynh, M., Boyeaux, A. and Pignon, C. (2016) Assessment and care of the critically ill rabbit. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 19 (2), pp. 379-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2016.01.011
Hedley, J. (2011) Critical care of the rabbit. In Practice, 33 (8), pp. 386-391. https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.d4922
Harcourt-Brown, F. (2011) Critical and emergency care of rabbits. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 26 (12), pp. 443-456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2045-0648.2011.00119.x
Duxbury, J. (2021) Managing gastro-intestinal stasis in hospitalised rabbits: a literature review. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 36 (1), pp. 24-29 https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2020.1795020
Lichtenberger, M. and Lennox, A. (2010) Updates and advanced therapies for gastrointestinal stasis in rabbits. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 13 (3), pp. 525-541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2010.05.008
Huynh, M. et al. (2014) Retrospective cohort study of gastrointestinal stasis in pet rabbits. Veterinary Record, 175 (9), p. 225. https://doi:10.1136/vr.102460
Miller, C. (2022) Small mammal herbivores part 3: taking a dietary history and providing nutritional support. The Veterinary Nurse, 13 (9), pp. 417-425. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03492-1

Anaesthesia and analgesia

Anaesthesia

Schmid, M.L. et al. (2025) Evaluation of different intramuscular injectable anesthetic combinations in rabbits: Impact on anesthetic depth, physiological parameters, and EEG recordings. PLoS ONE, 20 (2), no. e0319106. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319106
Pieper, E.G. et al. (2024) A review of perioperative mortality in pet rabbits in Australia. Australian Veterinary Journal. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13391
González-González, E. et al (2024) Non-invasive blood pressure measurement in conscious rabbits: A comparison of Doppler ultrasonic and oscillometric devices. Vet Record, 195 (7), e4399. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.4399
Gardhouse, S. and Sanchez, A. (2022) Rabbit sedation and anesthesia. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 25 (1), pp. 181-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2021.08.012
Lee, H.W., Machin, H. and Adami, C. (2018) Peri-anaesthetic mortality and nonfatal gastrointestinal complications in pet rabbits: a retrospective study on 210 cases. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 45 (4), pp. 520-528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2018.01.010
Sibbald, R. (2018) Principles of rabbit anaesthesia for veterinary nurses. The Veterinary Nurse, 9 (4), pp. 202-206. https://doi.org/10.12968/vetn.2018.9.4.202
Kershaw, T.E. (2020) A summary of rabbit anaesthesia–part I: preparation and pre-operative nursing. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 35 (9-12), pp. 312-315 https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2020.1806766
Kershaw, T.E. (2020) A summary of rabbit anaesthesia–part II: intra-operative nursing and the recovery period. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 35 (9-12), pp. 351-353. https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2020.1806767
Benato, L., Murrell, J. and Rooney, N. (2023) Determining a cut‐off point for intervention analgesia in rabbits using the Bristol Rabbit Pain Scale. Veterinary Record, p. e2995. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.2995
Sredensek, J. et al. (2023) Evaluation of agreement between invasive and non-invasive blood pressure measurement using the PetMAP TM device in rabbits. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1141480
Okur, S. et al. (2023) Sedative and cardiopulmonary effects of intranasal butorphanol with midazolam or dexmedetomidine in New Zealand white rabbits. Veterinary Record, p. e299. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.2999

Airway management

Varga, M. (2017) Airway management in the rabbit. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 26 (1), pp. 29-35. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2016.10.014

Johnson, D.H. (2010) Endoscopic intubation of exotic companion mammals. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 13 (2), pp. 273-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2010.01.010

Reabel, S.N. et al. (2022) Comparison of blind and endoscopic-guided orotracheal intubation on laryngeal and tracheal damage in domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 49 (4), pp. 398-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2022.04.003

Bellini, l. et al. (2023) Retrospective comparison of the effects of laryngeal mask and endotracheal tube on some cardio-respiratory variables in pet rabbits undergoing anaesthesia for elective gonadectomy. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 65, no. 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13028-023-00673-2

Gheini, J and Zaki, S. (2022) Does the use of supraglottic device in rabbits cause less injury than other airway management devices? Veterinary Evidence, 7 (4), no. 608. https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v7i4.608

Foo, S.D. (2022) A comparison of supraglottic airway devices versus endotracheal intubation for use in rabbit anaesthesia. Veterinary Evidence, 7 (3), no. 563. https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v7i3.563

Arendt, T.B. et al. (2023) Computed tomographic laryngotracheal dimensions in adult domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are positively associated with body weight and the laryngotracheal lumen is narrowest at the level of the thyroid cartilage. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 84, 8, https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.23.04.0073

Monitoring

Harvey, L., Knowles, T. and Murison, P.J. (2012) Comparison of direct and Doppler arterial blood pressure measurements in rabbits during isoflurane anaesthesia. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 39 (2), pp. 174-184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2011.00685.x
Desprez, I. et al. (2022) Agreement of caudal aortic arterial blood pressure with oscillometry using two cuff widths placed on the thoracic or pelvic limbs of sevoflurane-anesthetized rabbits. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 49 (4), pp. 390-397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2022.03.004
Edis, A. et al. (2022) Effect of theatre temperature on body temperature during anaesthesia for routine neutering of domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 49 (2), pp. 173-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2021.06.019

Analgesia

Jekl, V. and Hauptman, K. (2025) Regional analgesia for oral surgery in rabbits. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2025.05.003
Grayck, M. et al. (2024) Use of subcutaneous maropitant at two dosages for pain management in domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy or orchiectomy. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine, 61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcam.2024.100888
Serpieri, M. et al. (2024) Comparison between carprofen and meloxicam for post-neutering pain management in pet rabbits. Veterinary Sciences. 11 (6), no. 257. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11060257
Liles, M., Brown, S. and Di Girolamo, N. (2024) Administration of meloxicam before rather than after castration on eating, defecation and pain indicators in pet rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus Veterinary Medicine and Science, 10, e1354. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.1354
Gronsky, S. et al. (2024) A single injection of high-concentration buprenorphine significantly reduces food and water intake as well as fecal and urine production in New Zealand White rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). American Journal of Veterinary Research. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.23.10.0230
Barter, L.S. (2011) Rabbit analgesia. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 14 (1), pp. 93-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2010.09.003
Forder, C., Benato, L. & Rooney, N.J. (2024) An investigation into how accurately UK rabbit owners identify pain in their pet rabbits. BMC Veterinary Research, 20, 122. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-03947-7
Benato, L. (2022) Assessing and ameliorating acute pain in rabbits. Companion Animal, 27 (12), pp. 171-174. https://doi.org/10.12968/coan.2022.0017
Benato, L. et al. (2020) Analgesia in pet rabbits: a survey study on how pain is assessed and ameliorated by veterinary surgeons. Veterinary Record, 186 (18), pp. 603-603. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.105071
Benato, L., Rooney, N.J. and Murrell, J.C. (2019) Pain and analgesia in pet rabbits within the veterinary environment: a review. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 46 (2), pp. 151-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2018.10.007
Benato, L. et al. (2020) Pain and analgesia in pet rabbits: a survey of the attitude of veterinary nurses. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 61 (9), pp. 576-581. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13186
Malik, A. (2021) Pain in rabbits: a review for veterinary nurses, part one: assessment of pain Veterinary Nursing Journal, 36 (3), pp. 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2020.1871456
Malik, A. (2021) Pain in rabbits: a review for veterinary nurses part 2: management of pain in hospital. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 36 (4), pp. 132-138. https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2020.1840471
Malik, A. (2021) Pain in rabbits: a review for veterinary nurses, part three: management of chronic pain at home. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 36 (5), pp. 162-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2020.1871457
Best, E. (2020) Should doses exceeding 0.2 mg/kg of oral meloxicam be given to reduce surgical recovery time in rabbits and should twice daily administration be considered? Veterinary Evidence, 6 (2). https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v6i3.372
Nield, K. and Govendir, M. (2019) Comparison of 0.2 Mg/kg Vs. 1.0 Mg/kg of oral meloxicam for safe and effective analgesia in domestic rabbits. Veterinary Evidence, 4 (2). https://dx.doi.org/10.18849/ve.v4i2.215

Surgery

Miles, S. (2024) A surgical approach the rabbit patient: part 2. Companion Animal, 29 (7), pp. 2-8. https://doi.org/10.12968/coan.2024.0003.2
Miles, S. (2024) A surgical approach the rabbit patient: part 1. Companion Animal, 29 (5), pp. 2-9. https://doi.org/10.12968/coan.2024.0003.1

Miscellaneous

Reproductive tract and neutering

Serpieri, M. et al. (2024) Effects of Intratesticular Lidocaine in Pet Rabbits Undergoing Orchiectomy. Animals, 14 (4), no. 551. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14040551
Vasiu, I, Wochnik, M. and Dabrowski, R. (2023) Mammary gland inflammation in rabbits does (Oryctolagus cuniculus): A systematic review. Reproduction in Domestic Animals. https://doi.org/10.1111/rda.14466
Harcourt-Brown, F.M. (2017) Disorders of the reproductive tract of rabbits. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 20 (2), pp. 555-587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2016.11.010
Settai, K., Kondo, H. and Shibuya, H. (2020) Assessment of reported uterine lesions diagnosed histologically after ovariohysterectomy in 1,928 pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 257 (10), pp. 1045-1050. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2020.257.10.1045
Baum, B. (2021) Not just uterine adenocarcinoma—neoplastic and non-neoplastic masses in domestic pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus): a review. Veterinary Pathology, 58 (5), pp. 890-900. https://doi.org/10.1177/03009858211002190

Our evidence collection on the Benefits and risks of neutering pets – what is the evidence contains a section on rabbits and other small animals.

Eyes / ophthalmology

Oliveira, I.V. et al. (2023) Determination of intraocular pressure and Schirmer tear test and the comparison between the applanation tonometer (Tono‐Pen AVIA®) and the rebound tonometer (TonoVet Plus®) in mini lionhead rabbits. Veterinary Ophthalmology. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.13150.
Hiebert, K. et al. (2023) Subconjunctival enucleation with or without third eyelid removal may present a viable enucleation technique in rabbits: 18 cases (2014–2022). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 261 (9), pp. 1368-1373. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.04.0207
Corsi, F. et al. (2022) Clinical parameters obtained during tear film examination in domestic rabbits. BMC Veterinary Research, 18, no. 398. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03492-1
Bedard, K.M. (2019) Ocular surface disease of rabbits. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 22(1), pp. 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2018.08.00
Hedley, J., Ede, V. and Dawson, C. (2022) Retrospective study identifying risk factors for dacryocystitis in pet rabbits. Veterinary Record, 191 (5), p.e1903. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.1903
Cinar, H. et al. (2023) Effects of gabapentin on intraocular pressure, tear production and horizontal pupil diameter in New Zealand White rabbits. Veterinary Record, e3558. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.3558

Gastrointestinal / abdominal

Desprez, I. and Chassang, L. (2024) Rabbit gastroenterology. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 28 (2), pp. 209-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2024.11.001
Desprez, I. and Chassang, L. (2024) Rabbit gastroenterology. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2024.11.001
Asghari, A. et al. (2025) A global systematic review and meta‐analysis of Giardia duodenalis in rabbits: Epidemiology, genetic diversity and possible zoonotic concerns. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 11 (1), e70176. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.70176
Sibbald, R. (2024) Comparison of medical versus surgical management of liver lobe torsion in rabbits. Veterinary Evidence, 9 (3). https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v9i3.687
Di Girolamo, N. and Tollefson, C. (2024) Computed tomographic diagnosis and clinical outcomes of small intestinal obstruction caused by trichobezoars in client-owned rabbits. Veterinary Radiolology & Ultrasound, 65 (3), pp. 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/vru.13349
Böttcher, A. and Müller, K. (2024) Radiological and laboratory prognostic parameters for gastric dilation in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Veterinary Record, e3827. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.3827
Sheen, J.C., Sladakovic, I. and Finch, S. (2023) Prognostic indicators for survival in surgically managed small intestinal obstruction in pet rabbits: 141 presentations (2011–2021) Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.06.0339.
Touzet, C. et al. (2022) Ultrasonographic features of the spleen in pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 44, pp. 46-50. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2022.12.005
Huckins, G.L. et al. (2023) Lidocaine constant rate infusion improves the probability of survival in rabbits with gastrointestinal obstructions: 64 cases (2012–2021). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 262 (1), pp. 61-67. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.05.0274

Musculo-skeletal

Bagha, F. and Keeble, E. (2024) Incidental osteoarthritis: risk factors, prevalence and clinical evidence in rabbits. Companion Animal, 29 (2), pp. 2-8. https://doi.org/10.12968/coan.2023.0049
Tome, I. et al (2023) Establishment of an ultrasound-guided protocol for the assessment of hip joint osteoarthritis in rabbits–A sonoanatomic study. PLoS ONE, 18 (9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291177
Von der Ahe, C. et al. (2023) Pressure sensing mat as an objective and sensitive tool for the evaluation of lameness in rabbits. PLoS ONE, 18 (7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286918

Dermatology

Singh, S.K. et al.(2024) Sarcoptic mange in domestic rabbits: Pathogenesis, impact, and control strategies. Veterinary Parasitology, 333, 110357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2024.110357
White, S.D. (2023) Rabbit dermatology. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 26 (2), pp. 347-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2022.12.002
Hedley, J. (2018) Antibiotic usage in rabbits and rodents. In Practice, 40 (6), pp. 230-237. https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.k2642
D’Ovidio, D. and Santoro, D. (2023) Efficacy of a spot‐on combination of fluralaner plus moxidectin against naturally acquired Sarcoptes scabieiinfestation in 10 pet rabbits: Retrospective case series. Veterinary Dermatology, 34 (1), pp. 3-6. https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.13120

Ears

Willems, A. et al. (2025) Evaluation of lateral ear canal ablation (LECA) as a surgical treatment option for external ear canal disease in lop-eared pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Animals, 15 (8), no. 1142. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15081142
Makri, N. et al. (2024) Cytological evaluation, culture and genomics to evaluate the microbiome in healthy rabbit external ear canals. Veterinary Dermatology. https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.13256
Monge, E. et al. (2023) Lateral ear canal resection and bulla osteotomy with marsupialization to treat otitis media in rabbits: forty‐eight procedures. Veterinary Surgery.https://doi.org/10.1111/vsu.14017
Chivers, B.D., Keeler, M.R.D. and Burns, C.C. (2023) Ear health and quality of life in pet rabbits of differing ear conformations: A UK survey of owner-reported signalment risk factors and effects on rabbit welfare and behaviour. PLoS ONE, 18 (7). e0285372. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285372
Dobberstein, R.E.A. et al. (2023) Perioperative complications and outcomes following partial ear canal ablation and lateral bulla osteotomy in pet rabbits: 20 cases (2009-2021). Journal of Small Animal Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13587

About evidence collections

Evidence collections bring together collections of published papers on topics of interest and importance to the veterinary professions. Papers are chosen for relevance and accessibility, with the full text of articles either being available through the RCVS Knowledge library, on open access or from other publications to which a significant number of veterinary professionals are likely to have access. This means that there may be relevant evidence that is not included.

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