Evidence collection21 April 2023

The use of cannabidiol (CBD) in animals

Evidence-based veterinary medicineEquineExoticsSmall animalsFarm animalsMedicine

Introduction

There have been many claims regarding potential medicinal uses for cannabis and its derivatives. However, any potential medicinal use has been complicated by the legal status of cannabis and cannabis derived products and confusion over the status of the wide range of consumer products containing cannabidiol (CBD).

While the regulatory frameworks differ between countries, the Veterinary Medicines Directorate in the UK put out a clear statement in 2018, stating that CBD products for use in animals require a marketing authorisation before they can be sold or supplied in the UK, and that companies supplying CBD products for human use in line with the requirements of the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency must not indicate or recommend their products for use on animals.

The recent licensing of Epidyolex (cannabidiol) for human medicinal use, has increased the interest in potential uses of cannabidiol in the veterinary field and the possibility that a veterinary surgeon may prescribe a legally obtained human CBD product under the provisions of the prescribing cascade.

The purpose of this evidence collection is to bring together information to help veterinary surgeons understand the regulatory framework around medicinal and consumer cannabidiol based products and highlight some of the relevant published literature.

As with other collections papers are chosen for relevance and accessibility, with the full text of articles either being available through the RCVS Knowledge Library or from other publications to which a significant number of veterinary professionals are likely to have access to, for example through the membership of the BVA or BVNA. However, due to the paucity of clinical research in this field we have also included articles which provide an understanding of the possible mechanisms of action and pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol based products in veterinary species.

Epidyolex: cannabidiol [European Medicines Agency] [online]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/epidyolex [Accessed 31 March 2023]
Veterinary Medicines Directorate (2018) VMD statement on veterinary medicinal products containing Cannabidiol [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/vmd-statement-on-veterinary-medicinal-products-containing-cannabidiol [Accessed 31 March 2023]

Legislative framework

When considering the legislative framework, it is important to distinguish between products that may fall under the Misuse of Drugs Act (Schedule 2 Class B), licenced medicinal products, and consumer products and food additives.

Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 [legislation.gov.uk] [online]. Available from: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1971/38/contents [Accessed 4 April 2023]
The Misuse of Drugs (Amendments) (Cannabis and Licence Fees) (England, Wales and Scotland) Regulations 2018 [legislation.gov.uk] [online]. Available from: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2018/1055/made [Accessed 4 April 2023]
Drug licensing factsheet: cannabis, CBD and other cannabinoids [Home Office] [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/cannabis-cbd-and-other-cannabinoids-drug-licensing-factsheet/drug-licensing-factsheet-cannabis-cbd-and-other-cannabinoids [Accessed 4 April 2023]
Cannabis based products for medicinal use in humans (CBPMs) [Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs] [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/cannabis-based-products-for-medicinal-use-in-humans-cbpms. [Accessed 4 April 2023]
ACMD advice on consumer cannabidiol (CBD) products [Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs] [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/acmd-advice-on-consumer-cannabidiol-cbd-products [Accessed 4 April 2023]
Cannabidiol (CBD) guidance for England and Wales [Food Standards Agency] [online]. Available from: https://www.food.gov.uk/business-guidance/cannabidiol-cbd [Accessed 4 April 2023]
- Cannabidiol (CBD) guidance for Northern Ireland [Food Standards Agency] [online]. Available from: https://www.food.gov.uk/business-guidance/cannabidiol-cbd-guidance-for-northern-ireland [Accessed 4 April 2023]
- Cannabidiol (CBD): Information for businesses about using CBD in food products [Food Standards Scotland] [online]. Available from: https://www.foodstandards.gov.scot/business-and-industry/safety-and-regulation/novel-foods-regulation/cannabidiol-cbd [Accessed 4 April 2023]

For those outside the UK it is important to check local legislation.

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2018) Medical use of cannabis and cannabinoids: Questions and answers for policymaking [online]. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available from: https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/media/publications/documents/10171/20185584_TD0618186ENN_PDF.pdf [Accessed 4 April 2023]
FDA Regulation of Cannabis and Cannabis-Derived Products, Including Cannabidiol (CBD) [US Food & Drug Administration] [online] Available from: https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-regulation-cannabis-and-cannabis-derived-products-including-cannabidiol-cbd [Accessed 4 April 2023]
World Health Organization (2018) Cannabidiol (CBD): Critical review report [online] Geneva: WHO. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/controlled-substances/whocbdreportmay2018-2.pdf?sfvrsn=f78db177_2 [Accessed 4 April 2023]

Medicinal products

NICE Guidance: Cannabis-based medicinal products [NICE] [online]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng144 [Accessed 5 April 2023]
BNF: Cannabis extract [NICE] [online]. Available from: https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drugs/cannabis-extract/ [Accessed 5 April 2023]
Cannabidiol-based treatment receives marketing approval from EMA (2019) [European Pharmaceutical Review] [online]. Available from: https://www.europeanpharmaceuticalreview.com/news/95506/marijuana-based-treatment-approval-ema/ [Accessed 5 April 2023]
European Medicines Agency (2021) Epidyolex (cannabidiol) [online]. Amsterdam: EMA. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/overview/epidyolex-epar-medicine-overview_en.pdf [Accessed 5 April 2023]
European Medicines Agency (2023) Epidyolex: EPAR – product information [online]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/epidyolex [Accessed 5 April 2023]
Sativex oromucosal spray [Electronic Medicines Compendium] [online]. Available from: https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/602/smpc [Accessed 5 April 2023]
Consumer cannabidiol (CBD) products report (accessible version) (2021) [Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs] [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/acmd-advice-on-consumer-cannabidiol-cbd-products/consumer-cannabidiol-cbd-products-report-accessible-version [Accessed 5 April 2023]

Consumer products

Consumer products should not make claims relating to efficacy and are not formally authorised for sale or assessed for safety. However, some monitoring has been carried out to check whether the CBD levels meet the declared value; the levels of contaminants, such as heavy metals and pesticides, and whether the level of THC+ (the total sum of illicit cannabinoids in the product) exceeds the 50 micrograms (µg) per unit of consumption threshold outlined in current guidance.

Cannabidiol (CBD): Consumer advice on cannabidiol (CBD) extracts [Food Standards Agency] [online]. Available from: https://www.food.gov.uk/safety-hygiene/cannabidiol-cbd [Accessed 6 April 2023]
Consumer research report on cannabidiol (CBD) extracts [Food Standards Agency] [online]. Available from: https://www.food.gov.uk/research/novel-and-non-traditional-foods-additives-and-processes/consumer-research-report-on-cannabidiol-cbd-extracts [Accessed 6 April 2023]
Analysis of CBD products [Food Standards Agency] [online]. Available from: https://www.food.gov.uk/research/research-projects/analysis-of-cbd-products [Accessed 6 April 2023]
Henion, J., Evans, S. and Wakshlag, J.J. (2023) Key quality control aspects about cannabinoid-rich hemp products that a veterinarian needs to know: a practitioner’s guide. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.22.10.0470
Xu, X. and Murphy, L.A. (2023) Simple and fast quantification of cannabinoids in animal feeds by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Diagnostic Investigation. https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387231169290
Chesney, E. et al. (2020) Lack of evidence for the effectiveness or safety of over-the-counter cannabidiol products. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology, 10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2045125320954992

Reference

Advisory Council on the Misure of Drugs (2021) Consumer Cannabidiol (CBD) products. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1041851/For_publication_-_CBD_products_report_17_December.pdf [Accessed 23 April 2023]

Use of cannabidiol (CBD) in veterinary medicine

Richter, G. and Hazzah, T. (2025) Cannabis and veterinary medicine. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 55 (6), pp. 1137-1158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2025.06.003
Niño Cital, S. et al. (2025) Cats and cannabinoids: past, present and future. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 27 (9). https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X251365392

Statements from veterinary organisations

Temmerman, R. (2025) Editorial: Use of cannabis derivatives in veterinary medicine. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1539422
Hazzah, T. (2023) Cannabis product use in cats & dogs in the United States. CliniciansBrief. Available from: https://www.cliniciansbrief.com/article/cannabis-cbd-cats-dogs-thc# [Accessed 23 January 2024]
Nerapusee, O. et al. (2023) Thai veterinarians’ perceptions of cannabidiol products for dogs with osteoarthritis: a qualitative interview study. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2023.1304180
Veterinary Medicines Directorate (2018) VMD statement on veterinary medicinal products containing Cannabidiol [VMD] [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/vmd-statement-on-veterinary-medicinal-products-containing-cannabidiol [Accessed 6 April 2023]
Federation of Veterinarians of Europe [2021] Cannabinoids use in animals and the veterinary profession [FVE] [online]. Available from: https://fve.org/publications/cannabinoids-use-in-animals-and-the-veterinary-profession/ [Accessed 6 April 203]
American Veterinary Medical Association (2020) Cannabis in veterinary medicine [online]. [ Available from: https://www.avma.org/sites/default/files/2021-03/APH-CannabisResources-Report-20201207.pdf [Accessed 6 April 2023]
American Veterinary Medical Association (2023) FDA: Congress, not rule-making, likely route for CBD availability [AVMA] [online]. Available from: https://www.avma.org/news/fda-congress-not-rule-making-likely-route-cbd-availability [Accessed 6 April 2023]
Wessmann, A. et al. (2021) Use of cannabidiol (CBD) in dogs and cats [online]. In: BSAVA Scientific Committee (2016) BSAVA scientific information documents. Quedgeley: BSAVA. Chapter 8. Available from: https://www.bsavalibrary.com/content/chapter/10.22233/9781910443514.chap8 [Accessed 6 April 2023]
Corsato Alvarenga, I. et al. (2023) Assessment of cannabidiol use in pets according to a national survey in the USA. Journal of Small Animal Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13619
EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) (2011) Scientific opinion on the safety of hemp (Cannabis genus) for use as animal feed. EFSA Journal, 9 (3), no. 2011. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2011
De Briyne, N. et al. (2021) Cannabis, cannabidiol oils and tetrahydrocannabinol—What do veterinarians need to know? Animals, 11 (3), no. 892. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030892
Kogan, L. et al. (2019) US veterinarians’ knowledge, experience, and perception regarding the use of cannabidiol for canine medical conditions. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2018.00338
Vogt, N.A. et al. (2019) A survey of veterinary student attitudes concerning whether marijuana could have therapeutic value for animals. PLoS ONE, 14 (7), no. e0219430. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219430
CPD Modules: CBD and dogs.][Online] Available from https://members.veterinaryprescriber.org/app/cpd/module/cbd-and-dogs (subscription required) [Accessed 31 March 2023]

Cannabinoid receptors and pharmacokinetics

In order to understand whether, and how, cannabinoids may exert an effect we need to understand the types and distribution of cannabinoid receptors and the way in which different formulation of cannabidiol are absorbed and distributed. Evidence in this area is very limited for veterinary species and as the first paper, a systematic review on the pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in humans, shows there is still a paucity of data in humans.

Schwark, W.S. and Wakshlag, J.J. (2023) A One Health perspective on comparative cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid pharmacokinetics and biotransformation in humans and domestic animals. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 84 (5), https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.23.02.0031
Millar, S.A. et al. (2018) A systematic review on the pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in humans. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.01365
Silver, R.J. (2019) The endocannabinoid system of animals. Animals, 9 (9), no. 686. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9090686
Freundt-Revilla, J. et al. (2017) Spatial distribution of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) in normal canine central and peripheral nervous system. PLoS ONE, 12 (7), no. e0181064. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181064
Sánchez-Aparicio, P. et al. (2020) Cannabinoids CB2 receptors, one new promising drug target for chronic and degenerative pain conditions in equine veterinary patients. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 85, no. 102880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2019.102880
Cunha, R.Z. et al. (2023) Expression of cannabinoid (CB1 and CB2) and cannabinoid-related receptors (TRPV1, GPR55 and PPARα) in the synovial membrane of the horse metacarpophalangeal joint. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1045030

Pharmacokinetics in dogs and cats

Wang, T.C. et al. (2025) Limited 12-hour pharmacokinetic assessment of CBD and CBDA isolates compared to their full-spectrum extracts in healthy adult beagles. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1639846
Kitts-Morgan, S.E., Sams, R.A., and Muir, W.W. (2025) Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol, (-)-trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol, and their oxidative metabolites after intravenous and oral administration of a cannabidiol-dominant full-spectrum hemp product to beagle dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1556975
Limsuwan, S. et al. (2024) Pharmacokinetics behavior of four cannabidiol preparations following single oral administration in dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1389810
Lyons, C. et al. (2024) Pharmacokinetic of two oral doses of a 1:20 THC:CBD Cannabis herbal extract in cats. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2024.1352495
Corsato Alvarenga, I., Wilson, K.M. and McGrath, S. (2023) Tolerability of long-term cannabidiol supplementation to healthy adult dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 38 (1), pp. 326-355. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.16949
Fernández-Trapero, M. et al. (2020) Pharmacokinetics of Sativex® in dogs: Towards a potential cannabinoid-based therapy for canine disorders. Biomolecules, 10 (2), no. 279. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10020279
Wakshlag, J.J. et al. (2020) Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and related metabolites in canine serum after dosing with three oral forms of hemp extract. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00505
Della Rocca, G. et al. (2022) Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol following single oral and oral transmucosal administration in dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffvets.2022.1104152
Di Salvo, A., Conti, M.B. and della Rocca, G. (2023) Pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of cannabidiol in dogs: an update of current knowledge. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1204526
Corsato Alvarenga, I. et al. (2023) Cannabidiol plasma determination and pharmacokinetics conducted at beginning, middle and end of long-term supplementation of a broad-spectrum hemp oil to healthy adult dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1279926. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1279926
Bartner, L.R. et al. (2018) Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol administered by 3 delivery methods at 2 different dosages to healthy dogs. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 82 (3), pp. 178-183. Available from: https://europepmc.org/article/MED/30026641 [Accessed 23 April 2023]
Amstutz, K. et al. (2022) Single dose and chronic oral administration of cannabigerol and cannabigerolic acid‐rich hemp extract in fed and fasted dogs: Physiological effect and pharmacokinetic evaluation. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 45 (3), pp. 245-254. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvp.13048
Polidoro, D. et al. (2022) Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol following intranasal, intrarectal, and oral administration in healthy dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.899940
Deabold, K.A. et al. (2019) Single-dose pharmacokinetics and preliminary safety assessment with use of CBD-rich hemp nutraceutical in healthy dogs and cats. Animals, 9 (10), no. 832. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9100832
Doran, C.E. et al. (2022) Drug-drug interaction between cannabidiol and phenobarbital in healthy dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 83 (1). https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.21.08.0120
Zamith Cunha, R. et al (2023) Endocannabinoid system receptors at the hip and stifle joints of middle-aged dogs: A novel target for the therapeutic use of cannabis sativa extract in canine arthropathies. Animals, 13 (8), 2833. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182833.
Corsato Alvarenga, I. et al. (2023) Cannabidiol plasma determination and pharmacokinetics conducted at beginning, middle and end of long-term supplementation of a broad-spectrum hemp oil to healthy adult dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1279926. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1279926.
Jukier, T et al. (2023) Disposition of a single oral dose of a cannabidiol medication in healthy cats Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1181517
Rozental, A.J. et al. (2023) Pharmacokinetics of escalating single‐dose administration of cannabidiol to cats. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 46 (1), pp. 25-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvp.13100
Court, M.H. et al. (2023) Cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid: Preliminary in vitro evaluation of metabolism and drug–drug interactions involving canine cytochrome P‐450, UDP‐glucuronosyltransferase, and P‐glycoprotein. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, https://doi.org/10.1111/jvp.13403

Pharmacokinetics in horses

Wermer, K. et al. (2025) Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol and its two main phase I metabolites in Connemara ponies. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1599934
Williams, M.R. et al. (2024) Pharmacokinetic evaluation of a cannabidiol supplement in horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103842
Yocom, A.F. et al. (2024) Pharmacokinetics, safety, and synovial fluid concentrations of single- and multiple-dose oral administration of 1 and 3 mg/kg cannabidiol in horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2022.103933
Thomson, A.C.S. et al. (2024) Pharmacokinetics and tolerability of single-dose enteral cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid rich hemp in horses (Equus caballus). Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1356463
Zamith Cunha, R. et al. (2023) Expression of cannabinoid (CB1 and CB2) and cannabinoid-related receptors (TRPV1, GPR55, and PPARα) in the synovial membrane of the horse metacarpophalangeal joint. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1045030.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1045030
Williams, M.R. et al. (2022) Pharmacokinetic evaluation of a cannabidiol supplement in horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 110, no. 103842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103842
Turner, S.E., Knych, H.K. and Adams, A.A. (2022) Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in a randomized crossover trial in senior horses. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 83 (9). https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.22.02.0028
Yocom, A.F. et al. (2022) Pharmacokinetics, safety, and synovial fluid concentrations of single-and multiple-dose oral administration of 1 and 3 mg/kg cannabidiol in horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 113, no. 103933 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2022.103933
Eichler, F. et al. (2023) Pharmacokinetic modelling of orally administered cannabidiol and implications for medication control in horses. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1234551

Pharmacokinetics in farm animals

Arango, S. et al. (2023) Evaluation of behavior in veal calves fed milk containing different levels of hempseed cake (Cannabis sativa L.). Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2023.1295949
Kent-Dennis, C. & Klotz, J.L. (2023) Immunomodulation by cannabidiol in bovine primary ruminal epithelial cells. BMC Veterinary Research, 19, no. 208. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-023-03756-4
Meyer, K. et al. (2022) Plasma pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol following oral administration of cannabidiol oil to dairy calves. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.789495

Safety and toxicity

While a small number of safety and toxicity studies in veterinary species are starting to be published, it is important to interpret these in conjunction with the information in the section relating to the differences between medicinal and consumer products.

Lowe, R. (2023) Cannabidiol and naturalistic fallacy: it’s natural so it’s safe? Companion Animal, 28 (2), pp. 2-5. https://doi.org/10.12968/coan.2022.0039
Chesney, E. et al. (2020) Adverse effects of cannabidiol: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Neuropsychopharmacology, 45 (11), pp. 1799-1806. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-020-0667-2
Amissah, R.Q. et al. (2022) Prevalence and characteristics of cannabis-induced toxicoses in pets: Results from a survey of veterinarians in North America. PLoS ONE, 17 (4), no. e0261909. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261909
Greb, A. and Puschner, B. (2018) Cannabinoid treats as adjunctive therapy for pets: gaps in our knowledge. Toxicology Communications, 2 (1), pp. 10-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/24734306.2018.1434470

Dogs and cats

Puttharaksa, W. et al. (2025) A preliminary evaluation of the comparative efficacy of gel-based and oil-based CBD on hematologic and biochemical responses in dogs. Veterinary Sciences, 12 (4), no. 342. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12040342
Loewen, J.M. et al. (2024) Analysis of cannabinoids in plasma from 38 cases of suspected cannabinoid intoxication in dogs. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care. 34 (6), pp 545-553. https://doi.org/10.1111/vec.13428
Marsigliano, K., Green, K. and DiGangi, B.A. (2024) Case report: Treatment of non-medical tetrahydrocannabinol toxicosis with transmucosal cannabidiol-infused dissolving sheets in six dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1448123
Mills, T. et al. (2024) Tolerability of 2 and 4 mg/kg dosing every 12 hour of a cannabidiol- and cannabidiolic acid-rich hemp extract on mixed-breed dogs utilized for teaching in a closed colony. Animals, 14 (13):1863. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14131863
Limsuwan, S. et al. (2024) Pharmacokinetics behavior of four cannabidiol preparations following single oral administration in dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1389810
Binagia, E. M., Gregory, E. A., and Yankin, I. (2024) Clinical examination findings and electrolyte abnormalities of dogs with marijuana/tetrahydrocannabinol toxicity: 223 cases (January 2017–July 2021). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.02.0092
Bookout, W. et al. (2024) Safety study of cannabidiol products in healthy dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1349590
Coltherd, J.C. et al. (2024) Healthy cats tolerate long-term daily feeding of Cannabidiol. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2023.1324622
Jost, H.E. et al. (2023) Long-term effect of oral cannabidiol administration to healthy adult dogs on tear production, intraocular pressure, and tear concentrations. Veterinary Ophthalmology. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.13164
Bradley, S. et al. (2022) Long-term daily feeding of cannabidiol is well-tolerated by healthy dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffvets.2022.977457
Morris, E.M. et al. (2021) Feeding cannabidiol (CBD)-containing treats did not affect canine daily voluntary activity. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.645667
Vaughn, D.M., Paulionis, L.J. and Kulpa, J.E. (2021) Randomized, placebo-controlled, 28-day safety and pharmacokinetics evaluation of repeated oral cannabidiol administration in healthy dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 82 (5), pp. 405-416. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.82.5.405
Kulpa, J.E. et al. (2021) Safety and tolerability of escalating cannabinoid doses in healthy cats. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 23 (12), pp. 1162-1175. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X211004215
Brutlag, A. and Hommerding, H. (2018) Toxicology of marijuana, synthetic cannabinoids, and cannabidiol in dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice, 48 (6), pp. 1087-1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2018.07.008
Simpson, A.C., Bradley, C.W. and Schissler, J.R. (2020) Probable cutaneous adverse drug reaction due to a cannabidiol‐containing hemp oil product in a dog. Veterinary Dermatology, 31 (5), pp. 404-e108. https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.12876
McGrath, S. et al. (2018) A report of adverse effects associated with the administration of cannabidiol in healthy dogs. Journal of the American Holistic Veterinary Medicine Association. 52, 34-38 https://www.ahvma.org/wp-content/uploads/AHVMA-2018-V52-CannabisAdverseEffects.pdf

Horses

Wang, T. C. et al. (2025) Chronic oral dosing of cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid full-spectrum hemp oil extracts has no adverse effects in horses: a pharmacokinetic and safety study. American Journal of Veterinary Research. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.24.08.0235
Thomson, A.C.S. et al. (2024) Pharmacokinetics and tolerability of single-dose enteral cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid rich hemp in horses (Equus caballus). Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1356463
Eichler, F. et al. (2024) Behavioral observations, heart rate and cortisol monitoring in horses following multiple oral administrations of a cannabidiol containing paste (part 2/2). Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2023.1305873
Eichler, F. et al. (2023) Behavioral observations, heart rate and heart rate variability in horses following oral administration of a cannabidiol containing paste in three escalating doses (part 1/2). Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2023.1305868
Blanc, M.P.S. et al. (2022) Effects of a supplement containing cannabidiol (CBD) on sedation and ataxia scores and health. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 117, no. 104085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2022.104085
Leise, J.M. et al. (2023) Evaluation of an oral supplemental cannabidiol product for acceptability and performance in mature horses. Animals, 13 (2), no. 245. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13020245

Exotics

Johns, T.N. et al. (2023) Pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol-/cannabidiolic acid-rich hemp oil in juvenile cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2023.1286158
Sosa-Higareda, M. et al. (2023) Twice-daily oral administration of a cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid–rich hemp extract was well tolerated in orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica) and has a favorable pharmacokinetic profile. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 84 (4). https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.22.11.0197
Mumm, L.E. et al. (2022) Cannabis toxicity in a pet rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 43, pp. 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2022.06.004

Potential clinical uses of cannabinoids

Moreno-López, N., Moreno-López, C. and Amariles, P. (2025) Cannabis-based products for medicinal use in dogs and cats: a systematic review. Journal of Small Animal Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13913
Corsato Alvarenga, I. et al. (2023) Scientific validation of cannabidiol for management of dog and cat diseases. Annual Review of Animal Biosciences, 11, pp. 227-246. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-animal-081122-070236
Ukai, M., McGrath, S. and Wakshlag, J. (2023) The clinical use of cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid–rich hemp in veterinary medicine and lessons from human medicine. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 261 (5), pp. 623-631. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.02.0064
Fallahi, S., Bobak, Ł. and Opaliński, S. (2022) Hemp in animal diets – Cannabidiol. Animals, 12 (19), no. 2541. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12192541
Cindy, H.J. and Rupasinghe, H.V. (2021) Cannabidiol-based natural health products for companion animals: Recent advances in the management of anxiety, pain, and inflammation. Research in Veterinary Science, 140, pp. 38-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.08.001

Pain management and osteoarthritis

Lyons, C. et al. (2025) Efficacy of a 20:1 CBD:THC cannabis herbal extract for pain and inflammation in dogs following tibial plateau leveling osteotomy. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1676779
Yeung, T. and Uquillas, E. (2025) Does oral cannabidiol oil in adjunct to pain medications help reduce pain and improve locomotion in dogs with osteoarthritis? Veterinary Evidence, 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v10i1.701
Aragona, F. et al. (2024) Role of cannabidiolic acid or the combination of cannabigerol/cannabidiol in pain modulation and welfare improvement in horses with chronic osteoarthritis. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1496473
Talsma, B. et al. (2024) Evaluation of the effect of cannabidiol administration with and without nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in dogs with mobility disorders: A prospective, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled study. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1449343
Soontornvipart, K. et al. (2024) Cannabidiol plus krill oil supplementation improves chronic stifle osteoarthritis in dogs: A double-blind randomized controlled trial. The Veterinary Journal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2024.106227
K. Soontornvipart, P. et al. (2024) Cannabidiol plus krill oil supplementation improves chronic stifle osteoarthritis in dogs: A double-blind randomized controlled trial. The Veterinary Journal, 308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2024.106227
Zanelli, G.R. et al. (2024) Perioperative analgesic and sedative effects of cannabidiol in cats undergoing ovariohysterectomy. Animals, 14 (16), no. 2286. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14162286
Casas-Alvarado, A. et al. (2024) Assessment of the nociceptive response to the use of cannabidiol alone and in combination with meloxicam through infrared pupillometry in female dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1380022
Panda, C. et al. (2024) Efficacy and tolerability of full spectrum hemp oil in dogs living with pain in common household settings. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1384168
Hasckel Gewehr, J.L. et al. (2024) Full spectrum cannabidiol-rich extract reduced propofol dosage required for anesthetic induction in dogs—a pilot study. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1352314
Interlandi. C. et al. (2024) Improved quality of life and pain relief in mature horses with osteoarthritis after oral transmucosal cannabidiol oil administration as part of an analgesic regimen. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2024.1341396
Miranda-Cortés, A. et al. (2022) The role of cannabinoids in pain modulation in companion animals. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1050884
Morrow, L. and Belshaw, Z. (2022) Cannabidiol (CBD) in addition to current treatment for pain reduction in canine osteoarthritis [BestBETs for Vets] [online]. Available from: https://bestbetsforvets.org/bet/582 [Accessed 6 April 2023]
Patikorn, C. et al. (2023) Efficacy and safety of cannabidiol for the treatment of canine osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of animal intervention studies. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1248417. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1248417.
Shilo-Benjamini, Y. et al. (2023) Therapeutic efficacy and pharmacokinetics of liposomal-cannabidiol injection: a pilot clinical study in dogs with naturally-occurring osteoarthritis. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1224452
Brioschi, F.A. et al. (2020) Oral transmucosal cannabidiol oil formulation as part of a multimodal analgesic regimen: Effects on pain relief and quality of life improvement in dogs affected by spontaneous osteoarthritis. Animals, 10 (9), no. 1505. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10091505
Gamble, L.J. et al. (2018) Pharmacokinetics, safety, and clinical efficacy of cannabidiol treatment in osteoarthritic dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2018.00165
Verrico, C.D. et al. (2020) A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of daily cannabidiol for the treatment of canine osteoarthritis pain. Pain, 161 (9), pp. 2191-2202. https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fj.pain.0000000000001896
Klatzkow, S. et al. (2022) Evaluation of the efficacy of a cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid rich hemp extract for pain in dogs following a tibial plateau leveling osteotomy. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffvets.2022.1036056

Epilepsy and seizures

Jensen, H.A. et al. (2025) Cannabidiol treatment for refractory idiopathic epilepsy in dogs: A systematic review with risk of bias assessment. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 245, no. 106649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2025.106649
Gesell, F.K. et al. (2013) Alterations of endocannabinoids in cerebrospinal fluid of dogs with epileptic seizure disorder. BMC Veterinary Research, 9, no. 262. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-6148-9-262
Rosenberg, E.C., Patra, P.H. and Whalley, B.J. (2017) Therapeutic effects of cannabinoids in animal models of seizures, epilepsy, epileptogenesis, and epilepsy-related neuroprotection. Epilepsy & Behavior, 70, pp. 319-327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2016.11.006
Potschka, H. et al. (2022) Cannabidiol in canine epilepsy. The Veterinary Journal, 290, no. 105913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2022.105913
Garcia, G.A. et al. (2022) Safety and efficacy of cannabidiol-cannabidiolic acid rich hemp extract in the treatment of refractory epileptic seizures in dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.939966
Morrow, L. and Belshaw, Z. (2020) Cannabidiol (CBD) in addition to current treatment for seizure reduction in canine epilepsy [BestBETs for Vets] [online]. Available from: https://bestbetsforvets.org/bet/568 [Accessed 6 April 2023]
McGrath, S. et al. (2019) Randomized blinded controlled clinical trial to assess the effect of oral cannabidiol administration in addition to conventional antiepileptic treatment on seizure frequency in dogs with intractable idiopathic epilepsy. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 254 (11), pp. 1301-1308. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.254.11.1301

Behaviour / stress

Wanapinit, K. et al. (2025) Evaluation of cannabidiol oil’s effects on sedation, behavioral responses to handling, and nociceptive thresholds in healthy cats. Animals, 15 (13), no. 1987. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15131987
Flint, H.E. et al. (2025) Treats containing cannabidiol, L-tryptophan and α-casozepine have a mild stress-reducing effect in dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1632868
Masataka, N. (2025) Possible anxiolytic effects of cannabidiol (CBD) administration on feline responses to a fear response test. Animals, 15 (11), no. 1642. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15111642
Weller, J.E. et al. (2024) Investigating the effect a single dose of cannabidiol has on measures of stress in cats when being transported in a carrier and meeting a novel person in an unfamiliar environment. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1476296
Hunt, A.B. et al. (2023) A single dose of cannabidiol (CBD) positively influences measures of stress in dogs during separation and car travel. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1112604
Morris, E.M. et al. (2020) The impact of feeding cannabidiol (CBD) containing treats on canine response to a noise-induced fear response test. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.569565

Inflammation / atopy

Eduarda Schmitz da Silva, M. et al. (2024) Case report: Cannabinoid therapy for discoid lupus erythematosus in a dog. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2024.1309167
Chiocchetti, R. et al. (2022) Cannabinoid receptors in the inflammatory cells of canine atopic dermatitis. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.987132
Rinaldi, V. et al. (2022) Expression of cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 in canine cutaneous mast cell tumours. Research in Veterinary Science, 152, pp. 530-536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.09.013
Mariga, C. et al. (2023) Dermatological evaluation in dogs with atopic dermatitis treated with full-spectrum high cannabidiol oil: a pre study part 1. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1285384. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1285384
Marsella, R. et al. (2019) Double blinded, vehicle controlled, crossover study on the efficacy of a topical endocannabinoid membrane transporter inhibitor in atopic Beagles. Archives of Dermatological Research, 311, pp. 795-800. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-019-01963-4
Loewinger, M. et al. (2022) The effect of a mixed cannabidiol and cannabidiolic acid based oil on client‐owned dogs with atopic dermatitis. Veterinary Dermatology, 33 (4), pp. 329-e77. https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.13077

Miscellaneous

Lejeune, A. et al. (2025) Safety, efficacy and doxorubicin pharmacokinetics during cannabidiol/cannabidiolic acid rich hemp oil use in dogs with lymphoma undergoing CHOP chemotherapy. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 39 (4), no. e70179. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.70179
della Rocca, G. et al. (2025) The role of the endocannabinoid system in oncology and the potential use of cannabis derivatives for cancer management in companion animals. Animals, 15 (15), no. 2185. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15152185
de Linde Henriksen, M. and McGrath, S. (2024) Growing interest but limited evidence on the usefulness of cannabidiol in treating ophthalmic disease in dogs: A review. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 262 (S2). https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.06.0360

About evidence collections

Evidence collections bring together collections of published papers on topics of interest and importance to the veterinary professions. Papers are chosen for relevance and accessibility, with the full text of articles either being available through the RCVS Knowledge library, on open access or from other publications to which a significant number of veterinary professionals are likely to have access. This means that there may be relevant evidence that is not included.

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