Practice-based research

Published 11 June 2021 | Updated 12 May 2025

Introduction

Practice-based research, that is research undertaken in clinical practice involving client owned animals, provides the opportunity for veterinary surgeons and veterinary nurses to get involved in the research process, by asking relevant questions and developing evidence that can be applied to everyday practice. However, while undertaking practice-based research can be personally rewarding and help to answer important questions that are relevant to everyday practice, carrying out research that produces reliable evidence can be a daunting task.

The purpose of this collection is to bring together published resources to support those considering undertaking practice-based research. The resources cover the main phases of a research project, from conception and ethical considerations, through study design, analysis of data and statistics, to reporting results.

Overview

These references provide an introduction for anyone considering undertaking practice-based research.

References marked VN were written specifically for veterinary nurses but may contain useful information for anyone considering undertaking practice-based research.

• Quigley, M., McKenna, C. and Webb, T.L. (2024) Best practices for recruitment in veterinary clinical trials. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1418747
• Best practices in clinical research conduct in veterinary medicine [Frontiers in Veterinary Science] [online] Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/61059/best-practices-in-clinical-research-conduct-in-veterinary-medicine/articles [Accessed 29 January 2025]
• Sargeant, J.M. et al. (2024) What question are we trying to answer? Embracing causal inference. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1402981
• Holmes, M. (2009) Practice‐based clinical research: an introduction. In Practice, 31 (10), pp.520-523. https://doi.org/10.1136/inpract.31.10.520
• Mellanby, R.J. (2011) Promoting clinical research in practice. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 52 (11), pp.557-558. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2011.01148.x
• Mellanby, R.J. (2017) Opportunities for clinical research in primary-care practice. Veterinary Record, 180 (10), pp.248-249. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.j1076
• Camerlink, I. and Pongracz, P. (2022) When to formulate a research hypothesis. Applied Animal Behaviour Science,  248, p. 105582.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105583
• ^[VN] Clarke, P. (2012) Veterinary nursing research: types, importance and dissemination. The Veterinary Nurse, 3 (3), pp.142-146. https://doi.org/10.12968/vetn.2012.3.3.142
• ^[VN] Mansbridge, S.C. and Buckley, L.A. (2018) Getting started with your veterinary nursing dissertation: what can I research? Veterinary Nursing Journal, 33 (6), pp.175-177. https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2018.1459336
• ^[VN] Buckley, L.A. and Mansbridge, S.C. (2018) Sixteen tips for getting started in practice-based research. Veterinary Nursing Journal, 33 (1), pp.30-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2017.1394678
• Polton, G. and Scase, T. (2007) Collaborative clinical research in small animal practice. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 48 (7), pp. 357-358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2007.00442.x
• Furr, M. (2012) Multicentre clinical research and the veterinary clinician. Equine Veterinary Journal, 44 (s41), pp. 3-4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00519.x
• Bertone, J. (2013) Ethical, scientific and practical standards in clinical practice research. Equine Veterinary Journal, 45 94) pp. 391-393. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12062
• Capel, M. (2019) Conducting successful on farm clinical trials. In American Association of Bovine Practitioners Proceedings of the Annual Conference 2019. Mooresville: VM Publishing Company. 154-157 Available from: https://doi.org/10.21423/aabppro20197120 [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• Peffers, M.J. and Webster, L.C. (2022) Open Research—What is it, and how can Equine Veterinary Journal’s authors engage with Open Research initiatives? Equine Veterinary Journal,  54 (2), pp. 197-200. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13546

• Brennan, M., Belshaw, Z. and Doit, H. (2020) Research in practice: a beginners guide [RCVS Knowledge: The Knowledge Sessions][online] Available from: https://rcvsknowledge.podbean.com/e/research-in-practice/ [Accessed 9 June 2021]

• Dean, R. (2016) Irrelevant, irrelevant, irrelevant! Time to change our approach to research? Veterinary Evidence, 1 (4), 79. https://doi.org/10.18849/VE.V1I4.79
• ^[VN] Badger, S. and Jeffery, A. (2017) Don’t be afraid to ask the question: A simple guide for veterinary nurses to conducting evidence-based research in clinical practice. Veterinary Evidence, 2 (1), no. 91. https://doi.org/18849/VE.V2I1.91
• Budsberg, S and Church, D. (2016) Can practice-based evidence complement and promote EBVM? Veterinary Evidence, 1 (4) no. 80. https://doi.org/18849/VE.V1I4.80

Legal and ethical concerns

All practice-based research must meet legal and ethical standards to protect animal welfare, to ensure clients are able to give fully informed consent and to protect the reputation of those carrying out the research. Evidence of ethical approval is now frequently required by journals before they will accept manuscripts for publication.

Before undertaking any form of practice-based research veterinary surgeons should familiarise themselves with the RCVS Guidance relating to carrying out research as part of recognised veterinary practice and the report by a joint RCVS/BVA Working Party on ethical review for practice-based research.

• Quigley, M., McKenna, C. and Webb, T.L. (2024) Best practices for recruitment in veterinary clinical trials. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1418747
• Code of Professional Conduct for veterinary surgeons: 25. Recognised veterinary practice [RCVS][online] Available from: https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/advice-and-guidance/code-of-professional-conduct-for-veterinary-surgeons/supporting-guidance/recognised-veterinary-practice/ [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• RCVS and BVA (2013) Ethical review for practice-based research: a report of a joint RCVS/BVA working party. Available from: https://www.rcvs.org.uk/news-and-views/publications/ethical-review-for-practice-based-research/ [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• Moore, S.A. et al (2021) A CTSA One Health Alliance guidance on institutional review of veterinary clinical studies BMC Veterinary Research, 17, no. 83. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-021-02790-4
• Dennison, N. and Petrie, A. (2020) Legislative framework for animal research in the UK. In Practice, 42 (9), pp. 488-496. https://doi.org/10.1136/inp.m3920
• Fordyce, P. and Mullan, S. (2017) Nature and governance of veterinary clinical research conducted in the UK. Veterinary Record, 180 (3), pp. 69-69. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.103808
• Everitt, S. (2013) Veterinary clinical research – legal, ethical and welfare considerations. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 53 (3), pp. 117-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12040
• Sobolewski, J. et al. (2019) Readability of consent forms in veterinary clinical research. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 33 (2), pp.350-355. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15462
• Clutton, E. R. (2009) Clinical studies, pain and ethics. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 50 (2), pp. 59-60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2008.00735.x
• Yeates, J. et al. (2013) Ethical and evidential considerations on the use of novel therapies in veterinary practice. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 54 (3), pp. 119- 123. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12031
• Yeates, J.W., 2016. Ethical principles for novel therapies in veterinary practice. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 57(2), pp.67-73. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12402
• Mellanby, R. (2017) The only way is ethics? Undertaking research as a practice-based vet/RVN. Veterinary Evidence, 2 (1), no. 84. https://doi.org/10.18849/VE.V2I1.84

Study design

In order to carry out practice-based research it is important to have a clearly defined question and choose the appropriate study design to answer it. Further information on asking an answerable question and appropriate study design can be found in the EBVM toolkit.

References marked VN were written specifically for veterinary nurses but may contain useful information for anyone considering undertaking practice-based research.

• EBVM Toolkit 1: Asking an answerable clinical question [RCVS Knowledge][online] Available from: https://knowledge.rcvs.org.uk/document-library/ebvm-toolkit-1-asking-an-answerable-clinical-question [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• EBVM Toolkit 3 – Introduction to “Levels of evidence” and study design [RCVS Knowledge][online] Available from: https://knowledge.rcvs.org.uk/document-library/ebvm-toolkit-3-introduction-to-levels-of-evidence-and-study/ [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• Giuffrida, M.A. (2016) Defining the primary research question in veterinary clinical studies. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 249 (5), pp. 547-551. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.249.5.547
• Shott, S. (2011) Designing studies that answer questions. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 238 (1), pp. 55-58. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.238.1.55
• Cardwell, J.M. (2008) An overview of study design. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 49 (5), pp. 217-218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2008.00594.x
• ^[VN] Bloor, C. (2011) Research methodology for veterinary nurses. The Veterinary Nurse, 2 (6), pp. 288-294. https://doi.org/10.12968/vetn.2011.2.6.288
• Sargeant, J.M., Kelton, D.F. and O’Connor, A.M. (2014) Study designs and systematic reviews of interventions: building evidence across study designs. Zoonoses and Public Health, 61 (s1), pp. 10-17. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12127
• Schulte, E. and  Arlt, S.P. (2022) Study design quality of research on dogs published in peer-reviewed journals. Veterinary Record, 190 (5), e1382. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.1382
• Hennessey, M. and Barnett, T. (2023) Method in limbo? Theoretical and empirical considerations in using thematic analysis by veterinary and One Health researchers. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 221, no 106061.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.106061

Observational studies

• Lawson, A. and Pinchbeck, G. (2021) Study design synopsis: observational study design in equine research. Equine Veterinary Journal. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13427
• Sargeant, J.M. et al (2017) What’s in a name? The incorrect use of case series as a study design label in studies involving dogs and cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 31 (4), pp. 1035-1042. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.14741
• Cullen, J.N. et al (2016) The case-control design in veterinary sciences: a survey. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 134, pp. 179-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.10.008
• Brodbelt, D.C. (2009) Retrospective studies: The good, the bad or the ugly? Journal of Small Animal Practice, 50 (11), pp. 565-566. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2009.00861.x

Experimental studies

• Oyama, M.A., Ellenberg, S.S. and Shaw, P.A. (2017) Clinical trials in veterinary medicine: a new era brings new challenges. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 31 (4), pp. 970-978. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.14744
• Sargeant, J.M., Kelton, D.F. and O’Connor, A.M. (2014) Randomized controlled trials and challenge trials: design and criterion for validity. Zoonoses and Public Health, 61 (s1), pp. 18-27. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12126
• Moore, S.A. et al (2021) A CTSA One Health Alliance (COHA) survey of clinical trial infrastructure in North American veterinary institutions. BMC Veterinary Research, 17, no. 90. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-021-02795-z
• Festing, M.F. (2020) The “completely randomised” and the “randomised block” are the only experimental designs suitable for widespread use in pre-clinical research. Scientific Reports, 10, no. 17577. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74538-3
• Giuffrida, M.A., Agnello, K.A. and Brown, D.C. (2012) Blinding terminology used in reports of randomized controlled trials involving dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 241 (9), pp. 1221-1226. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.241.9.1221
• Davies, R. et al (2017) Quality assurance and best research practices for non-regulated veterinary clinical studies. BMC Veterinary Research, 13, no. 242. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-017-1153-x

Research synthesis

• Tempelman, R.J. (2025) Invited review: A review of some commonly used meta-analysis methods in dairy science research. Journal of Dairy Science,108 (3), pp. 2115-2132. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2024-25718
• O’Connor, A. and Sargeant, J. (2015) Research synthesis in veterinary science: narrative reviews, systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The Veterinary Journal, 206 (3), pp. 261-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.08.025
• Sargeant, J.M. and O’Connor, A.M. (2014) Introduction to systematic reviews in animal agriculture and veterinary medicine. Zoonoses and Public Health, 61 (s1), pp. 3-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12128
• O’Connor, A.M. et al (2014) Conducting systematic reviews of intervention questions I: writing the review protocol, formulating the question and searching the literature. Zoonoses and Public Health, 61 (s1), pp. 28-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12125
• Sargeant, J.M. and O’Connor, A.M. (2014) Conducting systematic reviews of intervention questions II: relevance screening, data extraction, assessing risk of bias, presenting the results and interpreting the findings. Zoonoses and Public Health, 61 (s1), pp. 39-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12124
• O’Connor, A.M., Sargeant, J.M. and Wang, C. (2014) Conducting systematic reviews of intervention questions III: synthesizing data from intervention studies using meta‐analysis. Zoonoses and Public Health, 61 (s1), pp.52-63. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12123
• Tempelman, R.J. (2024) Invited Review: A review of some commonly used meta-analysis methods in dairy science research. Journal of Dairy Science. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2024-25718
• Buczinski, S., Ferraro, S. and Vandeweerd, J.M. (2018) Assessment of systematic reviews and meta-analyses available for bovine and equine veterinarians and quality of abstract reporting: a scoping review. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 161, pp.50-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.10.011

Questionnaire based research

• Polton, G. (2014) Questionnaire‐based clinical research. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 55 (2), pp. 73-74. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12178

Papers relating to specific areas of study

• Rossi, T.M. (2021) Study design synopsis: clinical validation of diagnostic tests. Equine Veterinary Journal, 53 (3), pp. 410-413. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13357
• Umemneku Chikere, C.M. et al (2019) Diagnostic test evaluation methodology: a systematic review of methods employed to evaluate diagnostic tests in the absence of gold standard–an update. PLoS One, 14 (10), no. e0223832. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223832
• Jarett, J.K. e al (2021) Best practices for microbiome study design in companion animal studies. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, p.304. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.644836
• Slingsby, L. (2010) Considerations for prospective studies in animal analgesia. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 37 (4), pp. 303-305. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2995.2010.00544.x
• Egenvall, A., Marr, C.M. and Byström, A. (2021) Study design synopsis: how to conduct, prepare, analyse and report equine biomechanical studies. Equine Veterinary Journal. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13439
• Webster, J.D. et al (2011) Recommended guidelines for the conduct and evaluation of prognostic studies in veterinary oncology. Veterinary Pathology, 48 (1), pp. 7-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300985810377187
• Tan, Y.J., Crowley, R.J. and Ioannidis, J.P. (2019) An empirical assessment of research practices across 163 clinical trials of tumor-bearing companion dogs. Scientific Reports, 9, no. 11877. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-48425-5
• Holmes, M. (2016) How to design a study in practice. Veterinary Evidence, 1 (2), no. 48. https://doi.org/10.18849/VE.V1I2.48 Wylie, C. (2017) Collaboration as a key feature of equine evidence-based research: a laminitis case study. Veterinary Evidence, 2 (1), no. 104. https://doi.org/10.18849/VE.V2I1.104

Challenges in conducting practice-based research

In order to undertake practice-based research it can be helpful to understand some of the challenges that may be encountered with different types of study. These include accuracy of the data, methodology and sources of bias.

Information sources

• Davies, H. et al. (2024) Text mining for disease surveillance in veterinary clinical data: part one, the language of veterinary clinical records and searching for words. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1352239
• Robinson, N.J. et al (2015) Agreement between veterinary patient data collected from different sources. The Veterinary Journal, 205 (1), pp. 104-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.04.023
• Jones-Diette, J. et al (2017) Accuracy of the electronic patient record in a first opinion veterinary practice. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 148, pp. 121-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.11.014

Methodology

• Di Girolamo N and Meursinge Reynders R (2016) Deficiencies of effectiveness of intervention studies in veterinary medicine: a cross-sectional survey of ten leading veterinary and medical journals. PeerJ, 4:e1649. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1649
• Sargeant, J.M. et al. (2022) Watch your language: An exploration of the use of causal wording in veterinary observational research. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 1004801.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1004801
• Wareham, K.J. e al (2017) Sample size and number of outcome measures of veterinary randomised controlled trials of pharmaceutical interventions funded by different sources, a cross-sectional study. BMC Veterinary Research, 13, 295. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-017-1207-0
• Gibbs, N. H. (2021) Reasons for exclusion of apparently healthy mature adult and senior dogs from a clinical trial. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 528 https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.651698
• Brown, D.C. (2007) Sources and handling of losses to follow-up in parallel-group randomized clinical trials in dogs and cats: 63 trials (2000–2005). American Journal of Veterinary Research, 68 (7), pp. 694-698. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.68.7.694
• Lund, E.M., James, K.M. and Neaton, J.D. (1998) Veterinary randomized clinical trial reporting: a review of the small animal literature. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 12 (2), pp. 57-60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.1998.tb02095.x
• Ritter, C. et al. (2023) Qualitative research in dairy science: A narrative review. Journal of Dairy Science, 106 (9), pp. 880-5895. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2022-23125

Bias

• Fosgate, GT. (2021) Study design synopsis: bias can cast a dark shadow over studies. Equine Veterinary Journal, 53 (20, pp. 205-216. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13358
• Wareham, K.J. et al (2017) Sponsorship bias and quality of randomised controlled trials in veterinary medicine. BMC Veterinary Research, 13, no. 234. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-017-1146-9
• Brown, D.C. (2006) Control of selection bias in parallel-group controlled clinical trials in dogs and cats: 97 trials (2000–2005). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 229 (6), pp. 990-993. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.229.6.990

Statistics

An understanding of statistics is important both for those undertaking research, and for those reading and interpreting the results of studies. This section provides links to articles from the veterinary literature to help ensure that you choose the most appropriate statistical methods and a sufficiently large sample to ensure significant results.

Introduction to statistics

References marked VN were written specifically for veterinary nurses but may contain useful information for anyone considering undertaking practice-based research.

• Sidebotham, D. (2021) Understanding significance testing. Anaesthesia. https://doi.org/10.1111/anae.15591
• Flaherty, D., Scott, E.M. and Currall, J. (2011) Do clinicians really need to understand statistics?. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 52 (6), pp. 279-280. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2011.01080.x
• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J. (2011) A statistics primer. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 52 (9), pp. 456-458. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2011.01108.x
• Camerlink, I. and Pongrácz, P. (2021) Getting the statistics right for your manuscript. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 239, no, 105333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105333
• ^[VN] Mesquita, J.R. et al (2012) Statistics in veterinary nursing research: what to know before starting the study. The Veterinary Nurse, 3 (10), pp. 594-598. https://doi.org/10.12968/vetn.2012.3.10.594
• Detilleux, J. (2021) Study design synopsis: battle in the stable: Bayesianism versus Frequentism. Equine Veterinary Journal, 53 (2), pp. 199-204. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13351
• Jeffery, N.D., Budke, C.M. and Chanoit, G.P. (2022) What is the value of statistical testing of observational data?  Veterinary Surgery. https://doi.org/10.1111/vsu.13845

Statistical tools – analysing the data

• Detilleux, J. S (2021) Study design synopsis: Survive the race – Time-to-event analysis. Equine Veterinary Journal, 53 (5), pp. 863– 866. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13466
• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J. (2013) Statistics: are we related? Journal of Small Animal, 54 (3), pp. 124-128. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12029
• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J. (2011) Statistics: making sense of what we see. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 52 (11), pp.560-565. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2011.01134.x
• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J, (2012) Statistics: more than pictures. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 53 (1), pp. 12-18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2011.01168.x
• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J. (2013) Statistics: dealing with categorical data. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 54 (1), pp. 3-8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2012.01298.x
• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J. (2013) Statistics: using regression models. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 54 (6), pp. 285-290. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12068
• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J. (2013) Statistics: more regression models. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 54 (10), pp. 541-546. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12131
• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J. (2014) Statistics: general linear models (a flexible approach). Journal of Small Animal Practice, 55 (10), pp. 527-530. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12260

Sample size and statistical power

• Scott, M., Flaherty, D. and Currall, J. (2012) Statistics: how many? Journal of Small Animal Practice, 53 (7), pp. 372-376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2012.01231.x
• Christley, R.M. (2008) Statistical significance, power and sample size – what does it all mean? Journal of Small Animal Practice, 49 (6), p. 263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2008.00612.x
• Christley, R.M. (2008) Statistical significance, power and sample size – part 2. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 49 (7), pp 321-322. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2008.00621.x
• Giuffrida, M.A. (2014) Type II error and statistical power in reports of small animal clinical trials. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 244 (9), pp. 1075-1080. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.244.9.1075
• Hofmeister, E.H. et al (2007) Sample size and statistical power in the small‐animal analgesia literature. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 48 (2), pp. 76-79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5827.2006.00234.x

Intepreting statistical results

• White, C.N. (2024) The perilous P. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 263 (2). https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.10.0645
• Weng, H-Y. and Messam, L.L.M. (2025) Reporting and interpreting statistical results in veterinary medicine: Calling for change. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 39 (1), e17258. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.17258
• Christley, R.M. (2016) Presenting and interpreting the results of statistical analyses: taking sample size into account. Equine Veterinary Journal, 48 (3), pp. 272-274. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12566
• Jeffery, N. (2015) Liberating the (data) population from subjugation to the 5% (P‐value). Journal of Small Animal Practice, 56 (8), pp. 483-484. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12391
• Counotte, M.J., Axiak, S. and Hartnack, S. (2020) Issues and pitfalls in the use of p-values. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 48 (2), pp. 155-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2020.10.007
• Evans, R.B. and O’Connor, A. (2007) Statistics and evidence-based veterinary medicine: answers to 21 common statistical questions that arise from reading scientific manuscripts. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 37 (3), pp. 477-486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2007.01.006
• Desquilbet, L. (2020) Enhancing clinical decision-making: challenges of making decisions on the basis of significant statistical associations. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 256 (2), pp. 187-193. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.256.2.187
• Martinez, B.A.F. et al (2017) Odds ratio or prevalence ratio? An overview of reported statistical methods and appropriateness of interpretations in cross-sectional studies with dichotomous outcomes in veterinary medicine. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 4, p. 193. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2017.00193

Reporting clinical research

Once the research is completed it is important to report and publish it in a way that will enable others to understand, appraise and incorporate the findings into their own practice. Standardised reporting guidelines for different types of study, including those developed in human medicine, may provide useful information. Authors should also check the ‘guidelines for authors’ for individual journals.

References marked VN were written specifically for veterinary nurses but may contain useful information for anyone considering undertaking practice-based research.

• Villarino, N.F. (2025) Recommendations for a complete reporting of statistical methods in veterinary pharmacology. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 48 (4), pp. 221-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvp.70001
• Boxer, E. (2023) Submitting your manuscript: how do you choose the right journal? Veterinary Record, 193 (12), pp. 484-485. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.3783
• DiBartola, S.P. and Hinchcliff, K.W. (2024) Scientific writing and editorial policies and procedures of the Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.16987
• Bergen, P., Munro, B.A. and Pang, D.J.S. (2023) Quality of reporting of prospective in vivo and ex vivo studies published in the Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care over a 10‐year period (2009–2019). Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 33 (4), pp. 435-441. https://doi.org/10.1111/vec.13312.
• Munro, B.A., Bergen, P. and Pang, D.S.J. (2021) Randomization, blinding, data handling and sample size estimation in papers published in Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia in 2009 and 2019. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2021.09.004
• Pongrácz, P. and Camerlink, I. (2021) The importance of Author Guidelines and details that may seem trivial. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 238, no. 105318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105318
• Pongracz, P.  and Camerlink, I. (2022) Unethical ‘salami slicing’ versus appropriately dividing data into multiple publications. Applied Animal Behaviour Science,  250, p. 105611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105611
• ^[VN] Heayns, B.J. (2012) A practical guide to publishing research for veterinary nurses. The Veterinary Nurse, 3 (8), pp. 470-476. https://doi.org/10.12968/vetn.2012.3.8.470
• Sargeant, J.M. (2021) Completeness of reporting of systematic reviews in the animal health literature: A meta-research study. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 195, no 105472 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105472
• Lefebvre, S.L. and Matushek, K.J. (2018) New guidance for reporting of case series in the JAVMA. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 252 (1), pp. 8-9. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.252.1.8
• Di Girolamo, N. and Winter, A.L. (2017) How to report exotic animal research. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice, 20 (3), pp. 997-1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2017.04.010
• Di Girolamo, N. et al (2017) Reporting and communication of randomisation procedures is suboptimal in veterinary trials. Veterinary Record, 181 (8), p. 195. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.104035
• Sargeant, J. et al. (2023) The standards of reporting trials in pets (PetSORT): Explanation and elaboration. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1137781 https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1137781
• Ruple, A. et al. (2023)  The standards of reporting randomized trials in pets (PetSORT): Methods and development processes. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1137774 https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1137774
• Sargeant, J.M. et al (2021)  Quality of reporting of clinical trials in dogs and cats: An update. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 35 (4), pp. 1657-1971. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.16204
• Sargeant, J.M. et al (2010) Quality of reporting of clinical trials of dogs and cats and associations with treatment effects. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 24 (1), pp. 44-50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0386.x
• Sargeant, J.M. et al (2009) Methodological quality and completeness of reporting in clinical trials conducted in livestock species. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 91 (2-4), pp. 107-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.06.002
• Winder, C.B. (2019) Invited review: Completeness of reporting of experiments: REFLECTing on a year of animal trials in the Journal of Dairy Science. Journal of Dairy Science, 102 (6), pp. 4759-4771. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15797
• O’CONNOR, A.M. (2010) The REFLECT Statement: methods and processes of creating reporting guidelines for randomized controlled trials for livestock and food safety. Journal of Food Protection, 73 (1), pp. 132-139. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-73.1.132
• Sargeant, J.M. (2010) The REFLECT statement: reporting guidelines for randomized controlled trials in livestock and food safety: explanation and elaboration. Journal of Food Protection, 73 (3), pp. 579-603. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-73.3.579
• The ARRIVE guidelines 2.0. [ARRIVE][online] Available from: https://arriveguidelines.org/arrive-guidelines [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• AMSTAR – Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews [AMSTAR][online] Available from: https://amstar.ca/Amstar_Checklist.php [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• CONSORT (CONsolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) 2010 [CONSORT][online] Available from: https://www.consort-statement.org/consort-2010 [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• Tong, A., Sainsbury, P. and Craig, J. (2007) Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 19 (6), pp. 349-357. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm042
• ISSM COREQ (COnsolidated criteria for REporting Qualitative research) Checklist [ISSM][online] Available from: https://www.elsevier.com/__data/promis_misc/ISSM_COREQ_Checklist.pdf [Accessed 28 May 2021]
• Boxer, E. (2022) Guidelines for reporting research in veterinary medicine. Veterinary Record, 190 (1) pp. 31-33.  https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.1348
• Reichel, M.P. et al (2022) How to publish a great scientific paper – a guide for publishing successfully in Veterinary Parasitology. Veterinary Parasitology, 304, p. 109697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2022.109697
• Munro, B.A., Bergen, P. and Pang, D.S.J (2022) Randomization, blinding, data handling and sample size estimation in papers published in Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia in 2009 and 2019. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia. 49 (1), pp. 18-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2021.09.004
• Bennett, R.C. (2022) Reporting guidelines: has their use improved the quality of reporting in Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia? Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 49 (1), pp. 4-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2021.12.003
• Moy‐Trigilio, K. E., Buote, N.J. and Parry, S. (2022) Publication rate and evidence‐based evaluation of abstracts presented at the veterinary endoscopy society annual meeting (2004‐2019). Veterinary Surgery. https://doi.org/10.1111/vsu.13761
• Marr, C.M. (2023) A pyramid needs a foundation: Exploding some myths about what EVJ’s editors are looking for from authors? Equine Veterinary Journal, 55 (6) pp. 931-937. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.14006
• Dunkel, B and Archer, D (2023) The perils of publishing—Avoiding pit falls as an early career researcher. Equine Veterinary Journal. 55 (6) pp. 938-939. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.14005

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Evidence collections bring together collections of published papers on topics of interest and importance to the veterinary professions. Papers are chosen for relevance and accessibility, with the full text of articles either being available through the RCVS Knowledge library, on open access or from other publications to which a significant number of veterinary professionals are likely to have access. This means that there may be relevant evidence that is not included.

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